THERE are relatively few female musicians in jazz. In the US, recordings led by women made up only one fifth of the top 50 albums in the National Public Radio jazz critics’ poll from 2017 to 2019 and this seems to be a long-term trend — a survey of British jazz musicians in 2004 suggested that only 14 per cent were female.

Rather than there being explicit barriers to entry, gender differences in preferences and socialisation are significant.

Men see concerts as a male space and male musicians are more likely to be encouraged to continue following early experience of playing with others, particularly in terms of learning improvisation and taking a solo from a young age.

It’s a cliche that music is a meritocracy, in which success is seen to arise from a combination of talent and effort.

If women are not present in jazz, it is often assumed to be because they cannot play well enough, play the wrong instruments or simply prefer other musical genres and the cultures around them.

It is likely, though, that some female musicians find the professional environment hostile.

In recent years, we’ve seen extensive reporting about sexist assumptions in the jazz industry, as well as accounts of sexual harassment.

Clearly, changes are still needed on the industry side. But what about the audiences? Are they helping to shape the sexism that is being reported in jazz?

Among audiences, the government’s Taking Part survey showed that more men than women attend jazz concerts and that the gap is larger for jazz than for rock. By comparison, women are more likely to attend classical concerts than men.

Female jazz performers therefore face primarily male audiences and rely on them to buy recordings too.

Our analysis suggests that men tend to play with men and women also tend to play with men.

Although there have been celebrated female-led initiatives and female-only bands, women are still dependent on men for their careers.

Part of this lack of women reflects the history of the genre. The world of pre-second world war jazz was overwhelmingly male. It was a time when it was near-taboo for women to play professionally in nightclubs and dance halls, at least outside female-only bands.

In earlier decades, many jazz musicians honed their trade in the armed forces. The expansion of jazz tuition by universities made a difference — jazz programmes run by universities were more open to women than informal or military training routes, providing access to networks and credentials.

There is also some evidence that women are pigeonholed as vocalists: data we have collected shows that 60 per cent of female musicians are vocalists, compared with 1 per cent of male.

Female musicians play slightly fewer instruments on average than male musicians and this lower versatility is in turn associated with making fewer records.

Learning fewer instruments in the first place may therefore be one of the reasons for the recording gender gap.

On the recordings side, there’s a clear and consistent gap between male and female musicians in the numbers of records made, even when taking training, instrument choice and period of birth into account.

This suggests that women face structural constraints in getting recorded, whether due to having shorter careers or a tendency for male musicians to be selected in preference.

Our triple focus on audiences, collaborations and recordings gives us a new perspective on gender inequalities, one which encourages us to think afresh about how things could be different.

Jazz audiences tend to be older and predominantly male. Ultimately, they fund the festivals and recordings which provide opportunities to female artists: their musical preferences and preferred concert experiences matter and festival programmers have to take them into account.

Assumptions about what the audience wants tend to reproduce the male-dominated world of jazz but audiences can play a part in challenging these assumptions.

They can do this by being open to different live music experiences and, most importantly, by supporting and investing in talented female jazz musicians

Paul Widdop is senior lecturer in sport business at Leeds Beckett University and Siobhan McAndrew is senior lecturer in quantitative social science at the University of Bristol. This article first appeared in The Conversation, theconversation.com.